The Byzantine Empire was centered on the Bosphorus, the strategic waterway linking the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea. At its zenith in the middle 7th century, the empire had recovered much of the original Roman Empire, lacking only most of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain), Gaul (modern France), and Britain. The Byzantines held the Middle East for a few centuries, but their empire consisted mainly of the Balkans and modern Turkey for most of their existence.

The Byzantine capital was Constantinople. It was defended on the land side by three rings of stout walls and over 1000 towers. A strong navy kept supplies coming in by sea. Constantinople stood for 1000 years after the fall of the Roman Empire, defending Europe against invasions by Persians, Arabs, and Turks.

The waves of barbarian invasions across the Rhine and Danube Rivers forcibly split the Roman Empire in two by the 5th century. The Western Empire, centered at Rome was the more desirable and weaker target. The last Western Roman Emperor was killed in 476. The Eastern Empire survived this period and emerged as the Byzantine Empire.

The first great Byzantine Emperor was Justinian I (482-565). His ambition was to restore the Old Roman Empire and he came close to this goal. His instrument was a professional army led by the greatest general of the age, Belisarius. The immediate threat came from a revived Persian Empire threatening to invade Asia Minor over the Euphrates River. When this threat was temporarily contained, Belisarius first invaded North Africa in 533, near modern Tunis, and defeated the Vandals who had forcibly migrated there over the past century, all the way from Germany. From North Africa Belisarius moved into Italy. By 536 he had retaken Rome from the Ostrogoths. By 540 he had retaken northern Italy.

Belisarius was then sent to the East once again, where a new Persian king was conquering Byzantine provinces in Asia. The combination of Belisarius, plague in Persia, and huge payments of gold stopped the Persian advance. The next threat came from Bulgars and Slavs from the north, down through the Balkans. They were beaten back four times between 540 and 558. When the Ostrogoths renewed the war in Italy, another Byzantine army broke their power forever and went on to recapture part of southern Spain.

In addition to his military campaigns, Justinian laid the foundation for the future by establishing a strong legal and administrative system, and by defending strongly the Christian Church.

The Byzantine economy was the richest in Europe because Constantinople was ideally sited to act as a conduit for trade between Asia and Europe and between the Black and Aegean Seas. It was an important destination point for the Silk Road from China. The nomisma, the principal Byzantine gold coin, was the standard for money throughout the Mediterranean for 800 years. Constantinople's strategic position eventually attracted the envy and animosity of the Italian city-states, especially Genoa and Venice.

The key agricultural areas of the Empire were the plains of Asia Minor and the Nile River Valley. State owned businesses and monopolies included farms, cattle ranches, mines, quarries, the silk trade, the dye trade, and the embroidery trade. The efficient bureaucracy assured a steady flow of tax revenue.

A key factor in the long life of the Byzantine Empire was its generally superior army. Although it suffered defeats on occasion, the military was sufficiently efficient to defeat successive invasions by Persians, Arabs, Bulgars, Slavs, and Russians through the 11th century and to survive for several centuries more.

The army drew on the best elements of Roman, Greek, Gothic, and Middle Eastern experience in war. Borders were guarded by mercenaries of various barbarian cultures. A strong permanent army made up of paid, long-service veteran soldiers was maintained at the capital. During the later years of the empire, part of the force in the capital was the Varangian Guard, a 'foreign legion' that included fierce Vikings. In times of crisis, the entire male population of the empire could be called up for service. At an early date, lands had been distributed to soldiers who formed a well-trained reserve of soldier/farmers. Most of the Anatolian plain was settled in such a manner, providing a large pool of soldiers for emergencies.

The core of the army was a shock force of heavy cavalry supported by both light infantry (archers) and heavy infantry (armored swordsmen). The cavalry were heavily armored with scale or chain mail. Depending on the situation, they could fight with a variety of weapons, including lances, bows, javelins, and swords. The army was organized into units and drilled in tactics and maneuvers. Officers received an education in military history and theory. Although outnumbered usually by masses of untrained warriors, they prevailed thanks to intelligent tactics, careful drill, and good discipline. The army believed in its system and trusted its officers, giving it high morale. When the army failed, the cause was usually a failure to follow their system.

The army was backed by a network of spies and secret agents that provided information about enemy plans and could be used to bribe or otherwise deflect aggressors

The Byzantine navy kept the sea lanes open for trade in the Black Sea and Aegean. On those occasions when Constantinople was threatened, the navy kept supply lines free so the city could not be starved into submission. In the 8th century a land and sea attack by Arabs was defeated largely by the use of a secret weapon, Greek fire. This chemical weapon, the composition of which has been lost, was a sort of liquid napalm that could be sprayed from a hose. The Arab navy was devastated at sea by Greek fire.

In the 7th and 8th centuries, the Arabs overran Egypt, the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain, removing these areas from Byzantine control permanently. The empire continued to contest control of Italy, attempting to reassemble the Roman Empire, but was never able to hold it for long. A critical blow to the empire was the battle of Manzikert in 1071. This defeat allowed the Turks to overrun and devastate most of Asia Minor, the empire's most important source of grain, cattle, horses, and soldiers. Although Asia Minor was recaptured temporarily, most of its value had been destroyed. The army suffered another catastrophic defeat from the Turks in 1176. In 1204, crusaders being led the Doge of Venice used treachery to sack Constantinople.

The empire began rotting from the interior, as well. A rising class of noblemen began amassing large estates after the 9th century. These men struggled with the emperors for control of the state and the army. Occasional revolts by the nobles weakened the state and lowered revenues. State income also fell as the Italian city states began drawing off much of the trade with the east.

In the 14th century the Turks invaded Europe, capturing Adrianople and bypassing Constantinople. They settled the Balkans in large numbers and defeated a large crusader army at Nicopolis in 1396. In May of 1453, Turkish Sultan Mehmet II captured Constantinople. He led 80,000 soldiers against a defense down to only 7,000. The attackers used heavy cannon under the direction of a Hungarian renegade to breach the walls. The fall of the city brought the Byzantine Empire to an end.

For 1,000 years, the Byzantines acted as the eastern bulwark for Europe against a succession of would-be invaders. This allowed the rest of Europe to gradually sort out its own problems and rise to world prominence.

Their legacy includes the Crusades, organized partly to help the Byzantines resist the Turks who had captured the Middle East and denied Christians access to the Holy Land.

The Byzantines are remembered today for their religion, culture, arts, and architecture. The Eastern Orthodox Church continues to carry on its traditions. Orthodox missionaries converted the Bulgars and Slavs to Christianity and gave their alphabet, called Cyrillic after the missionary Cyril. The Haggia Sophia, built in the early 6th century as a cathedral and one of the most beautiful buildings in the world, is now a museum. A reorganization of Roman Law by Justinian I became the basis for the legal systems of most of modern Europe.

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