At the end of the ancient Roman Empire, the Celts occupied only parts of northwest France, Ireland, Wales, and parts of Scotland. During the course of the Middle Ages, they strengthened their hold on Scotland and made several attempts to take more of England.

The ancient Celts had no capital. As the Middle Ages drew on, some Celtic groups coalesced gradually into identifiable nations. The Celts in Ireland took possession of the Norse city at Dublin and made it their capital. Edinburgh became the capital of Scotland.

The Irish remained small bands during the early Middle Ages. By 800 the four provinces of Leinster, Munster, Connaught, and Ulster had risen to power under 'high kings.' Viking raids began in 795 and then Viking settlements were established in the middle 9th century. The most important of these was at Dublin. Brian Boru became the first high king of all Ireland around 1000. In 1014 the Irish defeated the Danes of Dublin at Clontarf, although Brian Boru was killed.

An Irish tribe called the Scotti invaded what is now southern Scotland during the early Middle Ages, settling permanently and giving the land its name. They pushed back and absorbed the native Picts that had harassed the Romans to the south. The Scottish kingdom took its present shape during the 11th century, but attracted English interference. The Scots responded with the "auld (old) alliance" with France that was the foundation of their diplomacy for centuries to come. Edward I of England ("longshanks" or the "Hammer of the Scots") annexed Scotland in 1296.

William Wallace (Braveheart) led the revolt of Scotland, winning virtual independence at the battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. Defeated the next year at Falkirk, Wallace waged a guerrilla war until he was betrayed, captured, and executed in 1305. Robert the Bruce declared himself king of Scotland after murdering his main rival. He drove out the English, winning the battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Edward III of England recognized Scotland's independence in 1328.

No prince in Wales proved strong enough to unite the country. English kings of the 13th century made alliances with minor princes to keep any single prince from becoming dominate.

The Irish had been converted to Christianity in the 5th century by St. Patrick. During the next 100 years monasteries and nunneries spread across the island. During the Dark Ages, the Irish monks became the best educated group in Europe thanks to their intense study of Latin and the Scriptures. The monks then began to travel abroad, spreading Christianity into pagan areas of Europe, including Scotland, and places like England where Christianity had been obliterated by Germanic invaders.

Scotland and Wales adopted Irish Christianity first but converted to the Roman Church after the 8th century.

The Scottish fought primarily as massed spearmen in a type of phalanx called a schiltron. They and the Irish had little cavalry or archers. They often carried on the ancient Celtic tradition of painting their bodies for battle with blue woad. The ancient Celts had fought naked to the waist.

The Welsh developed the longbow, later adopted by the English. This was one of the most effective weapons of the Middle Ages, but required a high degree of skill. Archaeologists today can identify the skeletons of longbowmen from this period because of their twisted spines. This twisting was caused by the estimated 100 pounds of pull required to use the bow.

Vikings from Norway attempted another invasion of Ireland in 1103 but were defeated. The Irish could not settle on a single strong leader, however, and in 1170 the English took the opportunity to capture Dublin. The English held Dublin (and the land around it that was called the "Pale") for several centuries. The English were unable to complete the conquest of Ireland until the 17th century.

In the late 13th century, Edward I took over the government of Gwynedd, one of the strongest Welsh principalities in Wales. He proceeded to build five great castles in Wales that effectively placed the country under English rule.

Although the independence of Scotland was accepted by Edward III in 1328, war between the Scots and English carried on for several centuries. The crowns of the two countries were united in 1603, long after the Middle Ages were over.

Irish monks spread Christianity to Scotland, Wales, and nearby islands, including Iceland. They were partially responsible for the preservation of much ancient knowledge and its rediscovery during the Middle Ages. They are also remembered for their magnificent illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Kells. These are considered some of the greatest works of art from the Middle Ages.

The Scots of the Middle Ages invented the game of golf. The colorful plaid tartan cloths of the Scots date back to the 3rd century, but specific clan tartans are not known before the 17th century. Bagpipes came from Ireland originally and appear in Scotland by the 13th century.

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