The Holy Roman Empire that Otto I controlled extended over the German plain north to the Baltic, eastward into parts of modern Poland, and southward through modern Switzerland, modern Austria, and northern Italy. From the first, the emperors had a difficult problem keeping control of two disparate regions, Germany and Italy, that were separated by the Alps.

The Germans of the Holy Roman Empire had become Christians under Charlemagne and remained so throughout the Middle Ages. The emperors, however, had a confrontation with the Pope that shaped indirectly the future of Germany.

The confrontation was over the investiture of bishops and other church officials in Germany by the emperor. Pope Gregory VII objected to this practice because it led to the buying and selling of church offices, a major source of corruption. Offices often went to the highest bidder. After a long struggle between several Popes and emperors, the papacy won the right to choose its bishops. During the struggle, civil war broke out in Germany as a result.

The early emperors strengthened their hold on both Germany and Italy by allying with the church. Clergymen were especially useful in bureaucratic posts because they were far better educated than laymen of the time and left no heirs. The emperor thus got competent administrators without the risk of incompetent heirs replacing them.

In Germany, lands donated to the church by emperors were administered by German bishops. In return, church lands provided the emperor with money and tenants who manned imperial armies.

The imperial armies were manned partially by tenants of church lands who owed service to the emperor. A second important contingent were the ministriales, a corps of serfs who received the best training and equipment as knights, but who were not free men. These armies were used to put down revolts or interference by local nobles and peasants, or to defend against raids by Vikings from the north and Magyars from the east.

The German armies of the early Middle Ages were mainly foot soldiers. Charlemagne's conquest of Germany had been eased by the use of mobile cavalry armies against the slower German infantry. Mounted Magyar raiders from Hungary also had much success raiding into Germany. In the 10th century, temporary peace was purchased from the Magyars and the time used to train German cavalry. When payments stopped, the Magyars attacked again but German cavalry was able to defeat the raiders. In 955, the Magyars were defeated decisively in battle and never raided to the west again. They became Christian around 1000.

Because Germany remained a collection of independent principalities in competition, German warriors became very skilled. They hired out as mercenaries and sent large contingents to the Crusades. The most renowned German soldiers were the Teutonic Knights, a religious order of warriors inspired by the Crusades. The Teutonic Knights spread Christianity into the Baltic region by conquest but were eventually halted by Alexander Nevsky at the battle on frozen Lake Peipus.

The confrontation with the Pope over investiture weakened the emperors in both Germany and Italy. During periods of temporary excommunication of the emperor and outright war against Rome, imperial authority lapsed. The local German princes solidified their holdings or fought off the Vikings with no interference or help from the emperor. In Italy, the rising city states combined to form the Lombard League and refused to recognize the emperor.

Political power in both Germany and Italy shifted from the emperor to the local princes and cities. The ministriales rebelled, taking control of the cities and castles they garrisoned and declaring themselves free. During desperate attempts to regain Italy, more concessions were given to the local princes in Germany. By the middle of the 13th century, the Holy Roman Empire existed in name only. The throne remained empty for 20 years. The German princes cared only about their own holdings. The Italian city states did not want a German ruler and were strong enough to defend themselves.

Future emperors in the Middle Ages were elected by the German princes but they ruled in name only, controlling little more than their own family estates. Germany remained a minor power in Europe for centuries to come.

The fractured political landscape of both Germany and Italy during the Middle Ages delayed both regions from becoming nations until the 19th century. The Holy Roman Empire continued to exist until extinguished by Napoleon.

The major technological advance from Germany was the printing press. Either developed or invented in the 1430's by Johann Gutenberg, the key invention was movable type that could be arranged to form words, inked, and stamped on paper. Europe's first complete printed book was the Bible. Gutenberg printed 300 copies in 1456. The 40 odd copies of known to exist today are among the world's most valuable books. Although wood block printing originated in China in the 8th century, the printing press had a far greater impact. The new knowledge being developed in the Renaissance exploded across Europe. Some historians consider the invention of the printing press a more suitable event with which to mark the end to the Middle Ages than the discovery of the Americas. 

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Germanic Peoples

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