The name Turk refers to two different Muslim groups from the Middle East-first the Seljuks and then the Ottomans. The Seljuks were nomads from the steppes near the Caspian Sea that converted to Islam around the 10th century. Islamic peoples from Anatolia (modern Turkey in Asia Minor) were unified in the early 14th century under Sultan Osman I and took the name "Osmanli," or "Ottomans," in his honor. Both the Seljuks and Ottomans were a force for unification within part of the Muslim world and went on to wage war against the Christians of Europe.
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Approximately 70,000 Seljuk Turks were purchased as slaves to fill the ranks of the Islamic army of the caliph of Baghdad. These slaves converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1055 they became the protectors of the caliph in Baghdad and began extending their rule. Their leaders took the title "sultan," meaning "holders of power." By 1100 they controlled most of Anatolia (taken from the Byzantines), Palestine, the lands surrounding the Persian Gulf, the holy cities of Arabia, and as far east as Samarkand. The Ottomans in turn took up the cause of Islam and proved much more successful. At its peak in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire reached up into Europe to Budapest and Odessa, included all of Greece and the Balkans, the lands surrounding the Black Sea, Asia Minor, the Levant, Arabia, Egypt, and most of North Africa.
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| Capital |
| The Seljuk Turks made their capital at Baghdad.
The Ottoman capital was originally at Ankara. When they
captured Constantinople in 1453, they changed the name of
the city to Istanbul and moved their capital there.
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| Rise to Power |
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In 1071 the Seljuks achieved a stunning victory over a Byzantine army at Manzikert in modern Turkey that led to Turkish occupation of most of Anatolia. At nearly the same time, they successfully captured Jerusalem from its Egyptian Muslim rulers. These two events shocked the Byzantines, the Papacy, and the Europeans. The result was the Crusades that carried on for the next 200 years. After the last Crusade, Palestine remained in Islamic hands, but the power of the Turks had been expended and the Byzantines still carried on. The Ottomans swore a jihad against the crumbling Byzantine Empire and took their campaign around Constantinople into the Balkans and Greece. In 1389 the Serbs were defeated. In 1396 a "crusader" army from Hungary was defeated. Ottoman successes were temporarily halted by the Mongols under Tamerlane, but he moved on with his army and the Ottomans recovered. Sultan Muhammad II ("the Conqueror") at last captured Constantinople on May 29, 1453. The great walls of Constantinople were battered by 70 guns for eight weeks and then 15,000 Janissaries led the assault. The Ottomans went on to conquer much of southeast Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.
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| Economy |
| The economic prize for the Turks was control
of the east-west trade. Ironically, this trade was greatly
enhanced by the otherwise devastating Crusades because the
influx of westerners increased demand for silks, spices,
and textiles back in Europe. The Arabs also expanded trade
into Africa and along the eastern coast of that continent.
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| Religion |
| The Seljuks and Ottomans were Muslims and
conducted Holy War against the Christians to the West. The
two century conflict over Palestine increased greatly the
enmity between the two religions. The Muslims had been largely
tolerant of other religions previously, especially Judaism
and Christianity.
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| Military |
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The Seljuks fought as light cavalry in the nomadic tradition. They were originally mounted bowmen. By the time of the Crusades they were still light cavalry but more commonly using their scimitars (light, curved steel swords). The Ottomans were cavalry as well, being based on the great plains of Anatolia. Sultan Murad II created the Janissaries. These were male slaves, mainly Christians and from the Balkans, who were raised from childhood to be warriors. Noted for their discipline and training, they constituted some of the best heavy infantry in the world. They wore chain mail and fought with a variety of weapons. The cannons used by the Turks at Constantinople were decisive in the attack, although the Byzantines were greatly outnumbered. The cannons were manned by Christian mercenaries.
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| Decline and Fall |
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The Seljuk Turks were worn down by the recurring wars with the Crusaders, even though they were ultimately successful in regaining control of Palestine. They were threatened simultaneously by the activities of the Assassins, a heretical sect of Islam. Internally, Islam entered a period of introspection because of the popularity of Sufi mysticism. During this period of exhaustion and weakness, they were attacked suddenly by the Mongols and collapsed. Baghdad fell to the invaders in 1258 and the Seljuk Empire disappeared. The Ottomans pushed on into Europe following the capture of Constantinople and threatened a sort of reverse Crusade. They were stopped by a Hungarian army at Belgrade in 1456, however. Attacks on Vienna were stopped by Austrians in 1529 and again in 1683. The Ottoman Empire remained a significant world power until World War I in the 20th century.
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| Legacy |
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The Seljuk Turks revitalized the Muslim world in the 11th century, unifying some of the diverse groups in the Middle East and renewing the war against the Christians to the West. Their incursions were the catalyst for the Crusades. The battle of Manzikert in 1071 insured that Asia Minor (modern Turkey) became a land of Turkish speech and Islamic faith. One legacy of the Ottomans is the strife currently afflicting the Balkans where Christians and Muslims remain in conflict 500 years after the Turks invaded the region. For more information
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